With the success of the Reformation, Europe was beginning to form into the modern world. Both religious and political allegiances were changing, and a spirit of change was in the air.
Predictably, it was not to be an east ride, as different powers in different countries asserted themselves. And equally predictably, the result was war after war after war.
THE COCKPIT OF EUROPE
For many years the Netherlands and Belgium had been possessions of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain. This had led to a number of Dutch Revolts during the Thirty Year’s War. With the Treaty of Westphalia the Dutch gained independence and began building up trade and naval prowess, leading to the Anglo-Dutch Wars with England.
The Dutch formed an extreme Calvinist Protestantism and the future was to see them spearheading political and intellectual freedom. However, with her wars with the Dutch the English were again becoming aware of European politics, sparking further trouble with France.
ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY
It began following the Treaty of the Pyrenees when Louis XIV married the Spanish Infanta. When Louis’ grandson, the Duke of Anjou, was made heir in 1701, England, Holland and Austria became worried that his ascension would unite France and Spain under the same monarch, giving too large a power bloc.
The War of the Spanish Succession began in 1702 to decide the matter, ended by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the coalition successful due to the military leadership of the Duke of Marlborough and his victories at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet.
No person would now sit on the throne of both Spain and France. Following the war France was becoming exhausted through constant conflict and would soon embark on its revolution, but the front stage of European history moved east.
THE GREAT PRUSSIA
For many years the possessions of the Electors of Brandenburg had been growing in relation to the other German principalities. Infused by Protestantism, in 1701 the area was named Prussia and the Elector declared himself king.
Throughout the 18th century their principal rulers, Frederick the Great and Frederich William II, added many territories to Prussia, which were to be successfully held against attacks until the Napoleonic Wars.
However, this Prussian ascendancy was again to disturb the status quo of European power.
SEVEN YEARS’ WAR
Prussia was particularly to vie for power with Austria, whilst at the same time Britain and France were to jockey for power worldwide in the colonies of the growing European empires.
All these factors came together in 1756 with the outbreak of the Seven Yearns War, which could be classed as a world war as it involved alliances between Prussia and Britain on one side, and Austria, France, Russia, Sweden and Spain on the other.
In deciding who won the war, all that can be said for sure is that the Treaty of Paris of 1763 was as confusing as the war itself. Prussia held out and remained strong, but there was no destruction of Austria either.
France lost much. The war extended to Canada where Wolfe captured Quebec for the British, and in India the war provided the impetus for Clive to take Bengal.
Internally, these French defeats provided the fuel for discontent that would lead to revolution. But Russia, although not defeating the Prussians, can also be seen as a victor, particularly concerning self-awareness.
THE RUSSIAN BEAR
With the collapse of Mongol rule in the late 14th century, the principality of Muscovy became the most powerful state in the region. Slowly absorbing neighbouring principalities, by 1547 Ivan the Terrible took the title of Czar of All Russia, making the region an autocratic state.
Expansion continued southwards, and into Siberia, until 1604 when rivalries in Russia led to a 10 year Time of Troubles. This ended with the firm rule of Michael Romanov, instigating a dynasty of Czars which would last until the Russian Revolution of 1917.
In 1649 the Romanovs instigated a feudal system throughout Russia, the country becoming more and more co-ordinated. In 1689 Peter the Great became Czar and realised that for Russia to survive, it had to modernise.
Travelling throughout western Europe, he returned to Russia with new ideas of learning and administration. Often tactless in his cultural revolutions, he moved the capital to St Petersburg, rebuilt as a European-inspired city, and westernised much of the country.
Holding its own during the Seven Year’s War, in 1762 a German princess became Empress of Russia. This was Catherine the Great, and by the end of her rule the administration had become even more harsh internally, and she had transformed the state into an empire, taking Poland, the Baltic States, the Crimea and most of the Black Sea coast from the Ottoman Turks.
A TROUBLED CONTINENT
The picture of Europe was changing. Russia and Prussia, as well as Britain, were becoming strong. Alongside this, internal pressures of frustration were building within Russia, with similar seeds of revolt arising in France.
A powder keg was forming; strains were beginning to show; a void was waiting to be filled by the stronger power. But at the same time, as we will see in the next few posts, the European was conquering the world.
© Anthony North, November 2007
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