THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Following the Napoleonic Wars, with the exception of Germany the geography of Europe was redrawn to the modern political states of today. Nationalism rose with new middleclass parliaments beginning to adopt democracy and displacing popular religion, with monarchial rule taking second place.
Stirrings of a smaller scale continued in France. Several less harsh revolutions finally brought to an end monarchial rule there in 1848, re-imposed after Napoleon, leading to a new republic with a president as head of state. Indeed, 1848 saw a revolutionary spirit hit other European countries as the modern state was sculpted.

EASTERN EUROPE

As for the rest of Europe, 1827 saw Greece move to freedom from the Ottoman Empire, and 1830 saw the creation of the kingdom of Belgium. Hostilities broke out in 1853 when Russia attempted to lay claim to the guardianship of the Holy Places of the Turks.
The Crimean War ensued, with Britain, France and Turkey fielding against Russia, fearing Russian expansion in the Balkans following the withdrawal of the Ottomans.
The war hinged on the taking of Sevastapol in the Crimea. Following British victory at Balaclava the war formed into a winter siege. The Russians surrendered Sevastapol in 1856 but the cost was evidenced by the ‘lady of the lamp’, Florence Nightingale, who had been present and dedicated her life to changes in health care.

SOCIAL CHANGE

The 19th century was also a time of social change. Evidenced by our memories of Victorian Britain, with the coming of industrialisation the cities had advanced from cultural centres to huge urban connurbations.
Agricultural workers had flocked to them in search of work and were downtrodden. It was in this climate that Karl Marx was to inspire the proletariat. The year 1889 saw the first glimmer of power of the newly modelled trade unions, changing from organisations to protect crafts and skills to stand up for the rights of the workers.
There were coordinated strikes in the London docks and Ruhr coal mines. A realisation was growing that ‘laissez faire’ – the regulation of social standards by the free play of economic forces – would not work, and by the 1890s governments in general were beginning to look at the social questions, decreeing the final blow to feudalism.

THE RISE OF GERMANY

However, stirrings of another kind were to concern the European as the century drew to an end – stirrings that were to very much bring the modern world into being.
In 1870, becoming paranoid of the steady rise of the German state of Prussia, France declared war, beginning the Franco-Prussian War, in the hope of driving the southern German states into neutrality.
However, they under-estimated the preparedness of the Prussians who, following the battle of Weissenburg, rushed on to take Paris in January 1871. The peace terms, as well as war indemnity, included the French ceding Alsace-Lorraine to Prussia. A flame had been kindled.
William I had become Kaiser of Prussia in 1861 and, with Bismarck as his Chief Minister, had set about the creation of a German Empire following the previous fall of French predominance in Europe.
After the Franco-Prussian War the North German Confederation – formed in 1867 under Prussian leadership – was renamed the German Empire. Germany was united, beginning an arms race between Germany (who wanted a great navy) and Britain (who were worried about this development). This policy was carried on in earnest when, in 1888, William II succeeded to the German throne.

TOWARDS THE GREAT WAR

In 1878 the Treaty of Berlin had given independence to many of the Ottoman possessions in the Balkans, including Bosnia, which immediately came under the military occupation of Austria, finally being annexed in 1908.
Wrangling had gone on for years over this area between Russia and Austria, leading to the kindling of yet another flame. Throughout Europe tempers were becoming frayed, leading to the Triple Entente between France, Russia and Britain.
In reply Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance. Europe was becoming a powder keg which, when it blew, would change the world beyond recognition.
The fuse was lit on 28 June 1914. But before proceeding, in the next post we should look at the intellectual achievements of Europe and see that the real driving force of the European was intellect.

© Anthony North, December 2007

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